Night World : Spellbinder Chapter 15

Thea.† Dani was shaking her arm. ‘They're talking to you.† The visions were gone. Thea was standing in Gran's workshop, seeing everything as if through a distorting lens. People's faces seemed to stretch; their voices seemed to drag. â€Å"I asked, how did you learn the invocation for summoning spirits?† Gran said slowly. Eric. He won't wait; he'll start without me. Or will he? I told him not to. But he'll be worrying about the party†¦. The party. All those kids†¦ even little kids. Humans, but people. like baby chicks with a hawk up above. How many of them will end up like Kevin? â€Å"The invocation for summoning spirits!† Gran was shouting, as if Thea were hard of hearing. â€Å"I†¦ we†¦ I heard you at Samhain two years ago. In Vermont. I saw the summoning the Inner Circle did.† Even her own voice sounded weird and distorted. â€Å"We saw you. Both of us. We were hiding behind the trees and you never even noticed,† Blaise said clearly, and the bells rang again. Dimly, Thea felt appreciation. But most of her mind was reeling from horrible thought to thought. Eric†¦ but if I try to get to him, if the Inner Circle finds out he's involved†¦ that will get him killed. A human who knows about the Night World. Immediate death sentence. But Suzanne. If he burns those dummies, Suzanne will kill him the way she killed Kevin. No matter what happened, Eric was going to end up dead. Unless†¦ â€Å"Which†¦ of the spirits†¦ did you call?† Gran was shouting, as if Thea was now not only hard of hearing but slow of understanding. Unless†¦ â€Å"That's what I want to tell you,† Thea said. She could see the way. It would mean the end for her, but she might possibly save Eric. If there was enough time, if they would let her alone, if Eric wasn't right now trying to be a hero†¦. â€Å"I want to tell you about it,† Thea said again. And then the words were tumbling out in a rush, faster and faster, as if some dam had broken inside her. â€Å"And I'll tell you everything-but please, Grandma, please, you have to let me go out now. Just for a little while. There's something I have to do. You have to let me go, and then I'll come back here and you can do whatever you want to me.† â€Å"Hold on a minute,† Mother Cybele said, but Thea couldn't stop. â€Å"Please-please. Grandma. I've done a terrible thing-and I'm the only one who can take care of it. I'll come back-â€Å" â€Å"Wait, wait, wait. Calm down,† Gran said. She looked agitated herself. â€Å"What's this rush all of sudden? Try it slowly. What do you think you have to do?† â€Å"I have to put her back.† Thea saw that she was going to have to give some explanation. She tried to speak dearly and slowly, to make them understand. â€Å"The spirit I let out, Grandma. Her name is Suzanne Blanchet and she was burned in the sixteen hundreds. And she's out, out there, and she's already killed a human.† Everyone was listening now, some leaning forward, some frowning. Thea looked around at the circle of faces, talking to all of them. She was still terrified, but what did that matter? Eric mattered. â€Å"Last week she killed a boy at my high school. And tonight she's going to kill more people, at the high school Halloween party. I can't explain how I know-there isn't time. But I do know. And I'm the only one who can stop her. I called her; I'm the only one who can put her back.† â€Å"Yes, but unfortunately it's not that easy,† a low voice said. Thea turned and identified Rhys, a wiry man in a white lab coat. â€Å"If the spirit's at large-† â€Å"I know about that, but I have a way to trap her. It's all set up, and I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Thea hesitated. â€Å"I've tricked somebody into helping me,† she said slowly. â€Å"And he's in danger right now. Which is why you have to let me go, let me take care of this. Please.† â€Å"You want to go to the high school, where the party is,† Aunt Ursula said. Although her lips were as thin as ever, she didn't sound angry. More-astute. Thea opened her mouth to say no, and then stopped, confused again. The party-or the desert? If Suzanne was really killing people at the party, she should go there. But only if Eric wasn't doing something to attract Suzanne to the desert. He was still more important to her than anyone else. But if he wasn't doing something-and if Suzanne was at the party-she might kill before Thea and Eric could lure her†¦. I'm going crazy. She felt, literally, as if she might faint. Her head was swimming. There were too many possibilities. It all depended on where Suzanne was right now, and there was no way to know that. Thea began to shake violently, black dots dancing in front of her eyes. I don't know what to do. â€Å"I'm sorry†¦ could everybody listen for a moment? I'm seeing something.† It was Aradia's voice, quiet and gently self-possessed. Mature, even though she was only a little older than Thea. Thea tried to see her through the black dots. â€Å"I think it's something important, something about what we're talking about,† Aradia said. Her beautiful face, with its smooth skin the color of coffee with cream, was turned toward Thea. Her wide brown eyes looked straight ahead without focus, the way they always did. Aradia couldn't see with those eyes-but then she didn't need to. She saw with her mind-and saw things that were hidden to most people. â€Å"I'm seeing a boy-he's dressed in some old-fashioned costume. He's beside a fire, inside a circle of stones.† Eric†¦. â€Å"He's got a stick-an ember. He's looking around. Now he's going to†¦ it looks like a scarecrow. I can't see it well. There's a pile of sticks underneath it. He's bending. He's lighting the sticks.† No. â€Å"I have to go,† Thea said. She wasn't asking permission anymore. Aradia was still speaking. â€Å"Okay, the sticks are catching fire. Now I can see better†¦ and it's not a scarecrow; it looks sort of like a witch. A doll.† She stopped, her lovely blind eyes widening. â€Å"It's-and it's moving-no, there's something moving it. I can see it now-a spirit. A spirit is moving the doll. It's coming out now-toward the boy-â€Å" â€Å"I have to go,† Thea said. And then she was moving, pushing her way between Rhys and Old Bob, breaking out of the circle. The beads of the curtain struck her face, clattering as they fell back behind her. â€Å"Thea, wait a minute!† â€Å"Thea, come back here!† â€Å"Ursula, you go get her-â€Å" The jeep. My backpack's in the jeep. I have to get it first. The keys to the Lincoln were hanging on a nail by the back door. Thea grabbed them. She pushed the back door open just as three or four people came hurrying through the bead curtain. She slammed the door in their faces. Get to the car. Fast. Now drive. She backed out of the alley, tires squealing. She could see light spill as the door to the shop opened, but by then she was turning onto Barren Street. She found herself driving at some new level, squeezing through the tail end of yellow lights, recognizing shortcuts in the dark. In just a few minutes she was at the Night World club with the jack-o'-lanterns on the porch. There was no place to park the Lincoln. She left it in the middle of the street, with the keys still in the ignition. She pulled the key to the jeep out of her belt and jumped in. Hurry. Hurry. She burned rubber again getting the jeep moving. Hurry. The freeway. Just let me get to him. And let it not be too late. That's all I ask, after that I don't care. Would you give up everything? The voice didn't seem like a stranger this time, didn't seem menacing. Just curious. And Thea had an answer. Yes. If I can just get there, in time, I can send him away. I can tell him some story, make him go somehow. Make him hide. I'll tell the Circle I tricked him or enchanted him into helping; I won't even tell them his name. They can't make me. Whatever they do to me, he'll be safe. That's all I care about. That's all I'm asking. But even that was a lot, and she knew it, so she kept her foot mashed down on the gas pedal. Freeway off ramp. Side road. She drove crazily fast. The pounding inside her head kept saying hurry, hurry, even as she was careening off curbs. Desert. Now the road was bad. It was hard to see; the moon was almost down. The jeep lunged over bumps and lurched into potholes. Eric, be doing something. Be talking to her, be running. You're so smart, please, please, be smart now. Keep her distracted, keep her hair away from your neck. How strong was a spirit? Thea didn't know. Please, I see everything so clearly now. I've been selfish, only thinking of me, what would make me happy. All that â€Å"encased in ice† garbage. I should have been dancing in the street. As long as Eric is all right, I don't care if he lives on Mars, I don't care if I never see him again. As long as he's well I'm happier than anybody has a right to be. A jolt rattled her teeth. She was off the road now, driving by landmarks. Through forests of dead yuccas that looked like skinny gray Cousin Its. It's taking so long, it's too long. Hurry. Hurry. She could see red sandstone in front of her. Pillars in the headlights. That's it! Go, go! The jeep rocketed over clumps of blackbrush. She could see fire in the depression between the pillars. She drove straight toward it. Fire-movement-the top of a silhouette†¦ â€Å"Eric!† She was yelling even as she slammed on the brakes. The jeep ground to a shuddering stop a few inches from a misshapen sandstone tower. â€Å"Eric!† She had the backpack in her hand. She tore the door open and jumped out, running. â€Å"Thea! Stay out of here!† She saw him. The light of the fire cast an eerie glow onto the already lurid sandstone. Everything seemed red, as if this place were bathed in blood. The roar of the jeep's engine and the roar of the fire merged to sound like the flames of hell. But Brie was alive and fighting. Fighting it. Thea threw herself at it, even as her brain was registering impressions. A wraith shape that looked at one second like a woman, and the next second like tattered clouds. Part of it seemed to be coiled around Eric, and he had both hands at his throat. Bits of the pine-needle amulet Thea had made for him were scattered around his feet. Useless. â€Å"Get away from him! I'm the one who set this up!† Thea screamed. She reached Eric and grabbed wildly at the wraith, at the part of it around his throat. Her hands felt Eric's hands, felt cold air. â€Å"No-Thea, watch out-â€Å" She saw the thing come free of Eric, who staggered. She saw it re-form, gather, then dive straight for her. â€Å"Thea!† Eric knocked her sideways. Cold air rushed by. She and Eric fell in a heap. She gasped â€Å"Eric, go,† even before she got up. She tried to shove at him, looking around for the wraith. â€Å"Go-get out of here! The jeep's running-get in and just drive. I'll call you later.† â€Å"Stay back to back,† Eric said breathlessly. â€Å"She's incredibly fast.† He added through his teeth, â€Å"You know I'm not leaving.† â€Å"This is witch stuff, you jerk!† she snarled, standing back to back. â€Å"I don't want you. You'll just get in my way!† It was a valiant effort. She even managed to inject something like hatred into her voice. And Eric wasn't perfect. He turned around, grabbed her by the shoulder, and yelled, â€Å"You know I'm not going, so don't waste any more time!† Then he shoved her sideways again and freezing wind streaked by her cheek, leaving her ear numb. â€Å"Sorry,† he said in his normal voice. â€Å"You okay?† Thea spun and looked behind her. The wraith was bobbing there. It was shaped like a woman made of vapor, with arms and legs only suggested, but with a long tail of hair that whipped around. â€Å"I've got the stuff,† Thea muttered to Eric. Admit- ting she knew he'd never leave. â€Å"But it'll take a few minutes to do the spell. We'll have to keep out of-† She was watching the lashing tail, but she wasn't fast enough. There was a sound-something between the snap of a whip and the crackle of electricity- and the tail flashed out. It was around her neck. At first it just felt cold. Insubstantial but icy, like a scarf of subzero wind. But then the wraith gave a jerk and it tightened and it did have substance. It felt like metal, like a pipe full of supercooled liquid, like the tentacle of some alien creature with ice for blood. It was choking her. She couldn't breathe and she couldn't get her fingers under it. It squeezed tighter, hurting her. She could feel her eyes start to bulge. â€Å"Look at me!† Eric yelled. He had a stick that was blazing at one end and he was dancing up and down like a crazy person on the other side of the fire. â€Å"Look! Suzanne! I'm going to get your little sister!† He poked the burning stick at the dummy Lucienne, not at the wood piled around her, but at the actual doll. â€Å"There! There! How do you like that?† He jabbed at the doll. A ring of fire blossomed in the black clothes. â€Å"Confess you're a witch!† Thea felt something slide away and her neck was free. She tried to shout a warning to Eric, but all that came out was a croak. He was already diving to one side anyway. That must be what he's been doing all this time. Dodging. â€Å"Eric, keep it up!† â€Å"Okay, but work fast!† He threw himself the other way. She forced herself to turn her attention from him. Her backpack was at the edge of the circle where she'd dropped it. She grabbed it and dumped the contents out on the ground. She had to do this right and she had to do it faster than she'd ever worked a spell before. Oak and ash. She threw them on the central fire, then scooted toward it, dragging the other materials close with a sweep of her arm. She ripped open a plastic bag and grabbed the quassia chips. They were light, and she had to thrust her hand into the flames to make sure they actually went in the fire. Blessed thistle was powder; she threw it. Mandrake root was solid, she threw it, too. She had just grabbed the ounce vial when Eric shouted, â€Å"Thea, duck.† She didn't look up to see what she was ducking. She fell flat instantly. It saved her. Icy wind blew her hair almost into the fire. â€Å"Suzanne!† Eric was yelling. â€Å"I've got your brother! Look!† There were fires at all three stakes now, and Eric was dashing between them, poking at one figure after another. Thea pulled the plastic cap off the vial with her teeth. She shook it into the fire, her hand in the flames again. One, two, three. The fire roared up, louder than ever, and pure blue. Thea fell back from it. â€Å"Suzanne! Over here!† Eric's voice was faint beyond the roar. Tears were running down Thea's face, her nose and eyes stinging from the acrid smell. She fumbled for the last object necessary for the sending-back†¦ the bag of residue from the bronze bowl. She took a handful in her left hand and dropped it between two charcoaled logs at the edge of the fire. Then she stood up-and saw that Eric was in trouble. He'd lost his burning stick. The wraith had him by the throat and it was whirling him around, changing shape every second. His mouth was open, but Thea couldn't hear any sound. â€Å"May I be given the Power of the Words of Hecate† She screamed it, into the roaring fire, toward the wheeling, changing spirit shape. And the words came, rolling off her tongue with a power of their own: â€Å"From the heart of the flame†¦ I send you back! Through the narrow path†¦ I send you back!† She put all her own power into the words, too, screaming them with an authority that she'd never felt in herself before. Because the wraith was fighting. It didn't want to go anywhere. â€Å"To the airy void†¦ I send you back! Through the mist of years†¦ I send you back!† Eric staggered, was jerked sideways. He seemed to be lifted off his feet by the wraith. â€Å"To beyond the veil†¦ I send you back! Go speedily, conveniently, and without delay!† Eric's feet were kicking in the air. This is how Kevin died, Thea realized suddenly and with absolute certainty. She found herself yelling words she'd never heard before. â€Å"By the power of Earth and Air and Water! By the power of Fire on this night of Hecate! By my own power as a daughter of Hellewise! Go speedily, conveniently and without delay, you bitch!† She had no idea where that came from. But the next instant Eric fell. The wraith had dropped him. It shot toward Thea-but then it stopped as if it had slammed into an invisible brick wall. It was directly over the fire. Caught. The blue flames were belching smoke-but sideways. Thea could see the wraith dearly above them. And for the first time, it didn't look like a cloud shape. It looked like a woman. A girl. Older than Thea, but still in her teens. With long dark hair that floated around her and a pale face and huge sad eyes. Her lips were parted as if she were trying to speak. Thea stared. She heard herself whisper, â€Å"Suzanne†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The girl held out a pale hand toward her. But at the same moment the fire flared up again. It seemed to turn the girl's hair to fire, too. Dark fire was burning all around her and there was an expression of infinite sadness on her face. Thea reached out a hand instinctively- The fire roared- And there was a flash like lightning. Suzanne had been drawn to the heart of the flame. And now the lightning formed a cone: the narrow path. Plastic bags and other debris whipped around the circle as if caught in a whirlwind. Suzanne and the cone of white lightning disappeared into each other. To the airy void. Through the mist of years. The fire flared up above Thea's head, and then sank down. The blue seemed to fall to the bottom. The flames turned yellow, like ordinary fire. It was as if a curtain had been drawn. To beyond the veil. That was where Suzanne was now. At the edge of the bonfire, where the residue had been, there was a lump of soft clay. Thea knelt and picked it up. She looked into the center of the flames-and saw a coil of long hair, the color of mahogany. The ends were starting to blacken and shrink in the fire. Thea reached in to grab it. She folded the hair over and quickly pressed the clay around it. It was a clumsy job, Blaise would have done much better, but the hair was enclosed. She groped on the ground for the wooden seal, found it, punched it into the clay. Suzanne's symbol, the cabalistic sign for her name, was printed. It was done. The amulet was restored, Suzanne was trapped again. She'd stay where she belonged unless somebody else was stupid enough to summon her. Thea dropped the amulet without looking at it, got up, and staggered around the fire to where Eric was lying. Her vision was strangely gray. After all this†¦ he has to be all right†¦ oh, please, let him be†¦ He moved when she reached him. â€Å"Eric, we did it. She's gone. We did it.† He grinned faintly. Said in a scratchy voice, â€Å"You don't have to cry.† She hadn't realized she was. Eric sat up. He was terminally mussed, his hair wild, his face dirty. He looked wonderful to her. â€Å"We did it,† she whispered again. She reached out to smooth his hair, and her hand stayed there. He glanced at the fire, then back at her. â€Å"I kind of hated to say those things to her. I mean, no matter how bad she was†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He touched Thea's neck, stroking gently. â€Å"Are you okay? I think you've got a bruise.† â€Å"Me? You're the one who really got it.† She put her free hand to his throat, fingers just barely touching. â€Å"But I know what you mean,† she whispered. â€Å"I felt-sorry-for her at the end.† â€Å"Don't cry again. Please. I really hate that,† he whispered, and he put his free arm around her. And then they were just kissing madly. Deliriously. Laughing and kissing and holding each other. She could taste her own tears on his lips, warming with his warmth, and she was trembling like a bird in a thicket. A few moments later a noise broke in. Thea didn't want to move, but Eric looked, and then he stiffened. â€Å"Uh, we've got company.† Thea looked up. There were cars just outside the sandstone pillars. Parked cars. They must have driven up sometime during the fight with Suzanne, while the roar of the fire blocked out the sound of their engines, while Thea's attention was focused on the wraith trying to Ml her. Because the people were already out of the cars. Grandma Harman, supported by Aunt Ursula. Rhys in his lab coat. Dumpling-shaped Mother Cybele, with her hand on Aradia's arm. Old Bob, Nans Buruku. Most of the Inner Circle was here.

Multi-Level Organizational Research

Organization is central to human achievement. The most accomplished individuals tend to have supporting groups and structures, which have major roles in celebrated successes, though they may remain hidden from superficial views. Organizations date back to the dawn of civilization, with religious institutions and military forces being enduring examples. Organizations are inherently multi-level (Klein, & Kozlowski, 2003). Each level is connected with and dependent on the others. The individual, teams, and the organization as a whole, are the 3 significant parts of a typical structure. Organizations, though they exist in kaleidoscopic varieties of purposes, sizes, and natures, share common issues when they become subjects of systematic inquiry. Performance and effectiveness are the two most important motivations for organizational research, though the interactions between individuals and groups are matters of primary interests in fields of sociology and psychology. This document reflects on the inevitable implications of multiple levels in organizations, and suggests best practices with respect to studying such structures and the people who function within them. The focus is on how to incorporate multi-level realities in to organizational research, Stating the Obvious It is common knowledge that organizations are made of individuals, and that groups of people have to function as teams. However, the implications of the obvious on how organizations should be studied and measured are complex and certainly not as obvious. It may be tempting to resort to over-simplification and ignore multi-level aspects of organizations when designing research projects to study them. Interplay between individual perceptions and organizations are common to all types of organizations. Multi level variations have been found even in the prison structure (Camp, et al. 1997), where institutional operations and satisfaction with immediate supervision have equal influences on the social climate. The implication is that any research in to the functioning and performance of a large structure with branches at multiple levels has to incorporate distinct phases of research for individuals at the periphery, for teams that operate within the body of structures, and for the entire organization as an entity. Each of these levels will be in dynamic inter-play with the other two. A phenomenon at a lower level, for example,   may not connect with theory validation at a higher level (Crowston, 2002). There are many examples of technologies being integrated in to organizations at lower levels, without incontrovertible evidence of the benefits at higher levels. That is why conclusions from research at a single level may not yield entirely relevant conclusions. The best individual technical skills may come to naught if a person cannot deal with others; similarly, the best teams cannot function without adequate resources and support from above (Loo, 2003). No level of organization can be independent, take all the credit, or be assigned all of the blame. Investigative research, which aims to diagnose why an organization functions below par, or which seeks to make recommendations for improvement, has to validate its suggestions for feasibility and appropriateness at each of the multiple levels. Past organizational research has focused more on the individual level, and not enough on teams and the organization as a unit, or on the interactions between these levels (Schnake, and Dumler, 2003). However, this trend has begun to change and researchers of today can no longer the multiple level structures of organizations they may wish to study. Organization science needs to match the integration which marks literature on the existence of multiple levels (Klein, & Kozlowski, 2003). Mixed level research needs methods and measurements of their own (Schnake, and Dumler, 2003); the levels of data collection and analysis are often not the same.   Pluralistic ignorance, in which each individual has a special perception of the self versus that of others and of the organization, commonly plagues organizational research. That is why projects should not be based solely on the surveyed and perceived opinions of individual members about their peers, superior, subordinates, and groups. Bottom up models which draw inferences from lower levels for the higher will yield different conclusions if a top down approach is used (Klein, & Kozlowski, 2003). Research methods must account for how perspectives change with levels. It may be best to adopt an iterative approach, thinking not micro or macro, but both micro and macro (Klein, & Kozlowski, 2003). Research Objectives as Determinants Given that multiple levels are ubiquitous in organizations of all types and sizes, all research in this area should take the phenomenon in to account. Organizational research may vary by objectives, and this factor of difference can help in dealing with multiple levels. The People and Process elements of the Marketing Mix for Services (Payne, 2002) play important roles in determining strategies followed by organizations which do not have concrete or tangible product features in their offers. Research in to the internal workings of such organizations may focus on the lower levels of individual capabilities, and small team functioning, rather than concern itself with organization-level matters. Conversely, stock market analysts who are concerned with specific financial outcomes may prefer to dwell on effectiveness of organizations as a whole (Huber and Glick, 1993), rather than bother with details of issues at micro levels. Downsizing and new designs are some major concerns of contemporary organizational research. These phenomena create most strains on the individual (Huber, and Glick, 1993) and hence projects which seek to study the effects of integration and different hierarchies should focus on the lowest level of individual members of staff. The simplistic approach of focusing on just one level of organization will not work in all cases. Communication issues, matters related to diversity in the work force and matters concerning global organizations, all require work to be done at all levels (Huber, and Glick, 1993). Social climate studies also have to take all levels in to account, since institutional initiatives can have variations at its spatially separated sites, and individual variations as well with regard to job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Camp, et al. 1997). Some of the research problems of multiple levels in organizations arose in the past because of the paucity of prior work in similar areas. However, there has been a cascade of organizational research in recent times, with multiple level enquiries (Huber and Glick, 1993). This new body of work can be used as templates when fresh research projects in organizational behavior are undertaken. The Effects of Organizational Labeling Organizations tend to fit in to stereotypes which have been created in public minds over time. Professionally managed corporations, political parties, religious institutions, and bureaucracies, are a few examples of such set patterns of our collective minds. Simultaneously, organizations are more than just people who control or work in them. Suppliers, financiers, regulators, franchisees, and customers are some of the other categories of stake holders. All organizations do not have to be equally responsive to the environment (Huber and Glick, 1993). Monolithic, powerful, and strongly entrenched organizations may demand research of how to further their aims, but worry less about the proclivities of employees and suppliers of goods and services at the bottoms and fringes of their hierarchies. A highly evolved organization will be dynamic and open minded: it deserves and needs organizational research at multiple levels, with plenty of iteration, and the objective validation of hypotheses. Others will be directive and in a hurry for results: they may appreciate the values of enquiries at multiple levels less or not at all. Organizational research driven by purely scholastic intent is a rare privilege. The professional researcher will more often have a restrictive brief set by a paying client with a specific and selfish perspective. Organizational studies may mention all the levels in passing or for the sake of completeness, rather than address each of them in detail and in concert. The multiple levels within organizations should always be kept in mind when studying structures and group working. Even though studies may be sponsored by the most apical level of organization, valid findings and scientific rigor require that the study extends to teams and to individuals as well. Towards Best Practices Multiple levels are inevitable in organizational studies. How can the complexities of this reality be incorporated for better research project design, and to ensure findings on which sponsors can rely? It is best to start with the environment in which the organization operates (Huber, and Glick, 1993). Such a prior effort will put research fully in context. It is necessary to spend time to collect primary data on how the organization functions; and to focus on processes which link the various levels (Crowston, 2002). It is risky to plunge headlong in to researching an organization: every investment in understanding its needs and to profile it accurately, will pay off in terms of relevant findings on which action can be taken. Levels in organizations can be conceived in terms of internal customers. This is a standard concept in Services Marketing (Payne, 2002). A higher level in an organization, or a branch of the same level, is a customer of a team which supports it through its function. Thus, a Sales Manager is a customer of his or her sales people, and the entire sales function is a customer of the production or manufacturing department. Since dealing with all levels can make organizational research very complicated, a workable option is to use the internal customer concept to delineate levels of research. Another approach is to set up microcosms of the organization in external settings, to act as laboratories for experimentation. Groups of employees may be placed on extended sabbaticals, and asked to play roles equivalent to the levels of their parent organizations. This approach has the advantage of eliciting more objective input data from people inside the organization, but can be expensive and time consuming. Research projects which adopt this ‘laboratory’ approach require patience and sustained support, but yield better and more applicable findings at the same time. A relatively quick and simple compromise could be to adopt a problem-solving approach (Loo, 2003). The median level is a good optimum in such cases, with a focus on actual teams from the structure, with additional participation by representatives from other levels and branches. This team approach can use direct and indirect benchmarking to support its recommendations. Wherever a choice is available, the organizational researcher should try to go as micro as possible as uncontrollable factors and complexities keep increasing as the analysis goes to higher levels (Camp, et al. 1997). Aggregate measures tend to mislead, and reduce the chances of useful and valid findings. Regardless of how organizational research is approached, a common requirement is to specify qualitative organizational performance measures as closely as possible. What for example is motivation or how will supervision be assessed? This will also address the issue of phenomena at lower levels not being confirmed by theories at higher levels-perhaps the higher level has not specified the benefits it seeks (Crowston, 2002). Such specification will also reduce the pitfalls of data from a lower level from pluralistic ignorance, affecting analysis of a higher level (Schnake, and Dumler, 2003). Finally, the organizational researcher must always think of multi-level implications of proposed work and suggestive conclusions whether or not all levels are included in the work (Klein, & Kozlowski, 2003). Such an approach should persist throughout the research, including the critical stage of sampling. Conclusions While multiple levels in organizations and their influences cannot be denied, including all of them comprehensively in actual projects may present.   It may often be best to make research manageable with clear statements of assumptions and limitations. Organizations are in flux in any case and will evolve towards the median level. This is the historic trend (Huber, and Glick, 1993). Excellence and thoroughness in studying the team level may be a good compromise. The perspective of each category of stake holders is distinct, yet valid. The researcher would do well to keep the expectations and profile of his or her customer in mind! Multiple levels, in the end, are integral to all significant organizations, and all research in to such groupings must take these multiple levels in to account. References Camp, R. et al. (1997) Aggregating Individual-Level Evaluations of the Organizational Social Climate: A Multilevel Investigation of the Work Environment at the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Justice Quarterly 14: 4: 739-762. Crowston, K, (2002) Process as theory in information systems research, Proceedings of The IFIP WG 8.2 International Conference: The Social and Organizational Perspective on Research and Practice in Information Technology, 10–12 June 2000, Aalborg, Denmark. Huber, G, and Glick, W, (1993) Organizational Change and Redesign: Ideas and Insights for Improving Performance, Oxford University Press Klein, K & Kozlowski, S, (2003) A Multilevel Approach to Theory and Research in Organizations: Contextual, Temporal, and Emergent Processes, Chapter 1 in Multilevel Theory, Research, and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions, and New Directions, JOSSEY BASS Loo, Robert (2003) A multi-level causal model for best practices in project management, Benchmarking, Vol10, Issue 1; pg. 29, 8 pgs Payne, A, (2002), The Essentials of Services Marketing, Prentice-Hall Schnake, M. and Dumler, M. (2003) Levels of measurement and analysis issues in organizational citizenship behavior research, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 76(3):283         

Art History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 15

Art History - Essay Example Case in point, an iconographic picture of God would be spoken to in the inner part roof emulated by lesser creatures, for example, heavenly attendants and holy persons that were spoken to beneath God. These delineations were regularly spoken to in frescoes and mosaics intended to portray the ideal request of the universe. Frescoes and mosaics were frequently shown one-dimensionally and would speak to religious assumes that had serious looks to intimate appreciation and convention. Religious craftsmen wished to attention these figures profoundly instead of physically displaying them from three-dimensional viewpoints. Byzantine specialists likewise took part in making enlightened compositions that were books or archives that were designed with sumptuous Byzantine materials (Cunningham, John and Lois 94). Case in point, numerous vital Bibles was frequently made into enlightened original copies and had exceptional spreads, weaved pages, and gold linings. Hagia Sophia is a previous patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, now a gallery, in Istanbul. Acclaimed precisely for its monstrous arch, it is regarded as the embodiment of Byzantine structural planning and a standout amongst the most wonderful structures on the planet. It was the biggest basilica on the planet for almost a thousand years, until the fulfillment of the Medieval Seville Cathedral in 1520. The current building was initially built as an audience somewhere around 532 and 537 on the requests of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, and was indeed the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to involve the site (the past two had both been wrecked by mobs) (Jeffreys and Steven 117). It was outlined by two planners, Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. The Church contained an expansive gathering of heavenly relics and accentuated, in addition to everything else, a 50-foot (15 m) silver iconostasis. This was the patriarchal church of the Patriarch of Constantinople and the religiou s

Placement of Older Adults Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Placement of Older Adults - Research Paper Example They keys areas are tare his chances of falling while taking the flight stairs, chances of been depressed and how Mr.Trosack will take his multiple medications that is (polypharmacy).These are the main major points that need to be focused by the case manager and his team and his interdisciplinary team for them to have an effective discharge schedule/plan. Each team player has to carry out a specific role in this case study to have positive results on Mr. Trosacks considering him as a case of social isolation. The family of Mr. Trosack interview will check whether it is capable of proving good care is the patient is discharged from the hospital. The case study team has to very keen on cases of depression which might affect his situation in recovering, there must also be therapist ,a person who will prescribe his medication(pharmacist) and an assistant who will take care of him while at home. After gathering all this information a suitable discharge plan will be recommended and a disch arge plan placement will be effected. (Idler & Benyamini1997). Members of Interdisciplinary Team The interdisciplinary teams in Mr.Trosacks case should comprise of the case manager who liaise the interdisciplinary team to craft out successful discharge plan for Mr.Trosacks.The specific duties for the interdisciplinary teams are outlined. In this case the patient is isolated while recovering from hip surgery, and the case or effects of isolation are known.The interdisciplinary team should include the following case manager that is the nurse, therapist and pharmacist. Roles of Interdisciplinary Team Therapist A therapist is someone who helps you understand problem related to your illness and helps see the positive side of life. In the interdisciplinary team there will be the therapist who would administer therapy into Mr. Trosacks will be able make him understand his specific needs as a patient and offer him hopeful solutions for change throughout the therapy formality. Pharmacist A p harmacist administers medicines to patients when a doctor recommends it and advices patients on correct prescription while taking their medicines. The pharmacist will ensure that Mr.Trosacks takes his medication on time and will from time to time check whether there are any side effects. Home care co-coordinator. Mr.Trosack will need a homecare co-coordinator who will be assisting small errand s mainly involving picking of grocery, will also be assisting Mr. Trosacks with the walker who will walking in his apartment because there is no elevator. The safety issues that could affect determination discharge plan include social isolation and this could affect his recovery plan due to depression. Mr.Trosacks lives alone ismall apartment which is clustered and there is little room for his walker, also the bathroom is tiny and there is no safety features which might help him in case of any accident. The bathroom cabinet where he keeps his medicine has old prescription medicine and this mig ht confuse him if he comes home and puts the new medicaments together with the old medicine. To get into the apartment you have to take the stairs and this will pose a great danger to Mr.Trosacks as he has to use a walker while climbing down the stairs or up the stairs and he may assistance of someone. Family ability to care for Mr.Trosack The basic safety mode of Mr.Trosack is after replacement of his hip is for his son and the wife to take care of Mr.Trosack. His family does not visit Mr.Trosack quite often and the small apartment is cluttered. Mr Trosack is diabetic and the need for nursing assistance is needed, but Mr.Trosack maintains that is capable of taking care of himself. There are several

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 3

Assignment Example Specially mentioning, the above described â€Å"soft side† of project management would support in finding out the obstacles in order to attain desired project targets by a considerable level (Andersen, 2010). 2. It can be apparently observed that there are several reasons for which projects fail drastically. In this similar concern, the various reasons might encompass unrealistic anticipations, ineffective exploitation of valuable resources, deficiency in the engagement of the senior officials or the management team and the involvement of inexperienced as well as low-skilled project managers. In addition, the other reasons for the failure of projects may embrace indistinct project targets, shortage of visibility in the projects and most vitally communication gaps among others. In order to ensure that a particular project does not fail, it can be organized in various ways. In this similar concern, the imperative ways can be centralization of projects in a particular database, p resentation of valuable information in a centralized manner along with establishing clear communication with every individual involved in a project among others (West, n.d.). 3. After reading the article of Turner & et. al. (2009), it can be affirmed that the relatively low implementation rate of Gantt chart and Critical Path Method (CPM) diagrams in projects might reveal informal planning based activities of the companies and most vitally it is showing less significance to them in terms of value. This could impose unfavorable impacts especially upon the financial conditions of the companies by a certain degree. In this similar context, my organization broadly uses the aforementioned aspects as primary tools in order to manage as well as organize various individual projects, make effective planning and guide the organizational members towards the accomplishment of different tasks. My organization which deals with providing military services to the customers intend to perform various operational functions similar to that of a hi-tech company. In this regard, one of the disparities, which exists relates to facet of change control prevailing in my business or industry, while it does not exist in the hi-tech companies as mentioned in the article. Thus, it can be stated that the above discussed instruments must be incorporated in order to ensure better project management (Docstoc, 2011). 4. According to the article of Cavaleri & Reed (2008) concerning the difficulties of describing the interdependencies between tasks, it can be affirmed that defining the interdependencies between tasks is actually quite difficult owing to various significant reasons. In this regard, a few of the reasons might embrace deficiency in coordination while conducting various project related activities, unsupportive collaboration actions, ineffective coordination procedures and massive interdependency upon one another regarding the completion of the projects in a stipulated time period. It can be affirmed from a broader outlook that the difficulties of defining the interdependencies between tasks in terms of complexities owing to the above discuss

Public Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Public Law - Essay Example (Author 1999) (Hinsley 1986) The United States of America supports a federal type of system wherein the state government functions as a separate entity and has got nothing to do with the central government. The United States prefers what we call the â€Å"clipped sovereignty†. It needs to be noted than in terms of constitutional sovereignty, the federal law is supposed to be placed at a higher pedestal when compared with state law. Hence, if the need of the hour demands the state government to tone down their policies and legal status with regards to the federal system, they would have no choice but to comply. The clipped sovereignty has been showcased in a perfect manner through a relevant sentence in the Article IV of the constitution. (Bloom and Johnson 2001) (American Philosophical Association, Sage School of Philosophy, JSTOR 1964) â€Å"This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.† (Bloom and Johnson 2001) European countries, with special regards to Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium and the European Union, follow an Upper Federal House System. Out here, there is no election but the composition is based on the governments of their constitution. In Germany Adolf Hitler viewed federalism as an obstacle and he wrote about it in his book Mein Kampf. He wrote, â€Å"National Socialism must claim the right to impose its principles on the whole German nation, without regard to what were hitherto the confines of federal states.† (Hitler 1998) â€Å"Those uncomfortable using the â€Å"F† word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like

Enhancing the Patient Experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Enhancing the Patient Experience - Essay Example Due to space imitation, the paper will focus only on the challenges that were experienced during the case study discussed, and not on the treatment. Different studies have revealed that person-centred care not only gives psychological satisfaction to patients, but also helps the nurses to gain psychological satisfaction in their job, as person-centred care not only makes easy their ‘job’, but also provides certain sense of spiritual meaning and depth to the process of caring. The Case Study The case study included in this paper is of a teenage female client who was recommended by her school for counseling and therapy. The physical examination of the client had revealed that the client was severely overweight and was suffering from obesity related problems. Her academic performance had gone down drastically in last six months, and she was becoming emotionally and psychologically distant from her peers and teachers. However, the decision to send her for counseling was take n when her parents approached the school regarding her performance and expressed worries over her behaviour problems. The method used to understand the client was personal interview. Six sessions of interview were conducted with the client. It was found that she was suffering from low self-esteem and insecurity. ... The client’s eating pattern was related to the emotional insecurity and unfulfilled needs. Hence, it was very necessary to adopt a person-centred approach to gain her confidence and faith. Person-centred approach is one of the most effective approaches in care. According to Ford and McCormack (2000), â€Å"in order to provide person-centred care, practitioners must acquire knowledge about the person which allows them to provide care and services that are compatible with individual’s values and which are, as such, highly valued† (Clarke, Hanson and Ross 2003, p.697). However, understanding the values of a person is not an easy task. There were many challenges that were experienced during the journey of the treatment process. Interestingly, the challenges started right from the beginning of the treatment as the first challenge was faced when I had to understand the core values of my client. Building mutual trust Communication between nurse and patient is an importa nt aspect of a successful treatment. However, communication is possible only when the patient trusts the nurse and believes that the details of his personal life will remain confidential. Hence, in order to encourage my client to open up emotionally, it was necessary for me to gain her trust. It was important to assure her that I was not going to judge her in any way, but understood her point of view completely. It has been observed that due to differing interpretation of illness and related conditions, the mutual trust between the nurse and the patient, which is necessary for good communication, cannot be developed (Sartain, Clarke and Heyman 2000, p. 913). Mutual trust can be enhanced by accessing and resolving the difference in patient’s and service provider’s interpretation of the medical

WITH REFERENCE TO NATIONAL ASTHMA GUIDELINES, DISCUSS THE IMMEDIATE Essay

WITH REFERENCE TO NATIONAL ASTHMA GUIDELINES, DISCUSS THE IMMEDIATE TRETAMENT OPTIONS AND LONGER TERM ISSUES FOR A 15 YEAR OLD FEMALE PRESENTING WITH AN ACUTE A - Essay Example Once the wheezing is controlled and the patient is brought home from the hospital, she must have follow up visits on a regular basis in order to minotor her condition. Since Jane has been admitted on an emergency basis with severe difficulty in breathing, the first step is to dilate the airways. The lack of oxygen can be corrected through the use of high concentrations of inspired oxygen (40-60%) using a high flow mask such as the Hudson mask(BTS:6.3.1). ABG and PEF levels must be maintained at above 92% and 50% respectively. If PEF levels are not rising fast enough, continuous nebulisation may also be considered using B2 agonists (BTS:6.3.2). To provide instant relief in breathing the use of ipratropium in association with salbutamol or terbutaline may also be considered. This helps to release blocked airways and bring the asthma attack under control(Plotnick and Duchrame 2003). The combination of ipratropium with salbutamol or tetrabuline works faster since they go straight to the lungs (National Institute 2001:1-13). Once Jane is stabilized and out of the hospital, there is no need to continue the use of ipratropium, since it will not be beneficial. (Stoodley et al 1999:8-18). The main aim of the long term treatment is to bring some measure of control over the wheezing attacks, so that Jane can sleep well at night and engage in moderate levels of activity without getting an attack. Since anxiety also brings about an attack, the aim of long term treatment must be to provide a supportive psychological environment for Jane, so that she does not get easily stressed. Jane must be reassured that her condition is curable, even though she has had it for so long. Because of her long history with asthma, Jane is likely to consider herself as a sick child who cannot play or be active. But she must first be counseled that she can also lead a fairly normal life, with a proper regimen of

WRITE A sidebar, along the lines of the sidebar in HK Chs. for one of Essay

WRITE A sidebar, along the lines of the sidebar in HK Chs. for one of the HK chapters - Essay Example But South Koreans were able to surmount their obstacles through creative inputs of their citizens and contribution from International Monetary Fund or IMF. IMF’s bailout package of $57 billion had come with huge conditions. The structural reforms were implemented in the form of massive layoff, shutting off of banks, control of IMF vis-Ã  -vis decision making in tax rates, interest rates of central banks. These had huge cascading ramifications on the people at large. They were force to liberalize their economic policy to facilitate foreign market entry, cutting taxes and drastically reducing government spending at the cost of public welfare. But Korean people were not prepared to take the economic depression placidly. They came to the rescue of their country through personal commitment and proactive participation. This was one of the most unique and exemplary exhibition of patriotism. The citizens of Korea donated gold from their personal collection of jewellery to the movement and collected whopping $2.2 billion from 3.5 million Korean citizens. Huge queue of the enthusiastic citizens could be seen at various collection centres. Eight tonnes of gold was collected in first week (bbc.com) Koreans were very sensitive to their country’s vulnerability to the exploits of IMF which had forced them to liberalize their economy for foreign market. They showed their resentment by reducing their imports by promoting goods made in their country only. They focused on strong manufacturing exports to improve their economic conditions (koreatimes.com). Koreans have been renowned for their love of their country. In 107, when Korea was overwhelmed with national debt of 13 million won1, ‘National Debt Repayment Movement’ had come to the fore and collected 190,000 won. The Korean culture greatly takes pride in their national heritage and likes to be proactive participant in its nation building processes. Through innovative measures and people’s participation, South

The links between CFCs Essay Example for Free

The links between CFCs Essay There have been many methods to try and investigate the chemistry of the atmosphere. Some scientists use monitoring to find out what is present in the atmosphere and in what concentration. Many of the substances present have characteristic absoroptions in the infra-red and ultra-violet reigons of the spectrum. (1) Eg Ozone absorbss ultra-violet radiation with wavelengths below 360nm. (1) Ozone concentration has to be measured over a period of time, at different heights and lattitudes to make sure that any decreases are not from natural influences. This can be done from the ground, high-altitude planes and satellites. Laboratory measurements are used to determine how substances will behave in the stratosphere like how they are affected by solar radiation and the rates of reaction. The rate constants are very important and allows the rate to be calculated for almost any conditions. It is not enough to know how they react in the laboratory because, on this small scale, gases mix quickly by diffusion (1) but in the stratosphere there are much larger distances and known gasses are not perfectly mixed. We would not be able to make full use of these measurements without knowledge of air movements (meteorology). CFCs in the troposphere are extremely unreactive but in the stratosphere there are much higher levels levels of radiation energy which are needed to break down C-Cl bonds. This energy does not reach the troposphere because it is filtered out by the O2 and O3 molecules present in the stratosphere. Small concentrations of CFC 11 (CCl3F) were discovered in rural areas, wel away from any sources,and showed that it was able to diffuse to Antarctica. Such a stable gas would accumulate in the atmosphere. Scientists flew into the ozone hole and measured the concentrations of ClO radicals and O3. Figure 4 below (1) shows that the concentration of O3 fell dramatically at the point where the concentration of ClO radicals soared. This was conclusive proof that a catalytic cycle involving Cl radicals must be involved in O3 depletion. Also figure 1 (4) shows a severe depletion in the ozone layer over the Antarctic on October 1, 1999. The rapid depletion of CFCs in the stratosphere is due to the high levels of ultra-violet radiation which leads to the photodissociation of CFC molecules. Eg A CFC 11 molecule would absorb the high energy ultra-violet radiation and fragment to release chlorine radicals: CCl3F == CCl2F + Cl. (1) The Cl radical could then destroy ozone in a catlytic cycle (1): Cl + O3 == ClO + O2 ClO + O == Cl + O2 overall: O + O3 == 2O2 (1) The chlorine atoms are not used up in these reactions, they are homogeneous catalysts. (4) The raction rate is fast and one chlorine molecule could destroy thousands of ozone molecules. The oxygen free radicals, O in the second equation, are formed continuosly in the stratosphere. Ozone depletion is most severe over Antartica in the southern spring because of unique weather conditions, the sun disappears for six months. In the winter a vortex of cold air isolates the circulating air mass from the rest of the atmosphere (1), polar stratospheric clouds form allowing particles nitric acid frozen around the nuclei of sulphuric acid. The clouds provide a surface for the reaction of HCl with ClONO2. This reaction produces Cl2 which breaks down to form Cl radicals when the sun returns. These radicals lead to the destruction of Ozone. Figure 5 below (1) shows how polar stratospheric clouds help Cl radicals to destroy ozone. As the chemistry of chlorine in the sratosphere is better understood it is shown that some gasses like NO2 and CH4 can react with ClO radicals and interrupt the catalytic cycle: Cl + CH4== HCl + CH3 ClO + NO2 == ClONO2 The chlorine atoms become bound up in the stable reservoir molcules, HCl and CIONO2. They remain chemically inactive until realeased (3). CFCs have been used so widely for many reasons. It has the essential physical properties for a refigerent, appropriate boiling and freezing points (low enough to evapourate efficiently but high enough to liquefy by compression) (2). Its chemically stable, non toxic and cheap. (2) CFCs and the related HCFCs quickly became the refrigerantschioce for almost all applications. It had a wide range of uses, see table 2 below(2), and it was better than all previous refigerants. Table 2 (2). Compound Number Bp/ C Major Applications CCl3F CFC11 23 Air conditioners, water chillers, aerosols, coolant CCl2F2 CFC12 -29 Domestic fridges and freezers, car air condtioning, poly(styene) foams Scientists want to use HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) as a replacement for CFCs because they contain fluorine as the only halogen (2). They also do far less damage to stratospheric ozone because HFCs are broken down in the troposphere by OH radicals so very little reaches the stratosphere also the C-F bond is not broken in the stratosphere. HFCs have no effect on O3 but they contribute to global warming. Also existing equipment will have to be modified or redesigned which could be very expensive. References:- 1. Article 1 Do CFCs destroy the ozone layer? , taken from ChemistryReview, March 1993. 2. Article 2 The rise and fall of CFCs, taken from Chemistry Review, September 1996. 3. Chemical Ideas pg 242 Heinemann 4. http://www. cis. ohio-state. edu/hypertxt/faq/usenet/ozone-depletion/top. html.

Smoking In England Health And Social Care Essay

Smoking In England Health And Social Care Essay Smoking is one of the major causes of preventable and premature death in the England. Smoking is a main contributory factor to the gap in mortality and healthy life expectancy between the most and least advantaged. There has been action on this public health issue by the government to protect the children and old age people. Government effort to tackle the problem of smoking gives multiple results in health promotion in society like reducing the cancer deaths, reducing asthma, reducing coronary heart diseases etc. Government took a major step towards the issue smoking by publishing White paper. Smoking is also one of the primary causes of health equality in England. In this paper, the problem of smoking is addressed by discussing about public health and health promotion models approach towards smoking, epidemiology of smoking in England, international policies and strategies to control smoking, national and local policies and strategies implemented to reduce the prevalence of smoking in England and reviewing them and concluding with some suggestions and recommendations. Smoking was not a major public health problem in 19th century. Tobacco was introduced from North America in Europe at the end fifteenth century. In beginning, tobacco was used for the medicinal purposes, later it was burnt in pipes for the pleasure purpose in England, then in Europe which later spread in whole world (Doll, 1998). The introduction of mechanical cigarette rolling machine brought the transformation and then cigarette became the cheapest and convenient way of tobacco use. In first half of 20th century cigarettes were promoted through advertisements, public relation and sponsorships. Smoking was not considered a public health issue due to insufficient evidence to prove relation of smoking to lung cancer, coronary heart disease etc. Later in research studies prove that smoking causes lung cancer (Doll and Hill, 1950). Globally 5.4 million people die each year from tobacco epidemic. The death toll is rising persistently and in two decades will reach 8 million a year. In the WHO European Region smoking prevalence is estimated at around 28.6% with a large gender difference males account for 40% and females 18.2%. The difference between the proportions of men and women smoking has gradually reduced, although it has not disappeared completely. In 1982, 38 per cent of men and 33 per cent of women were smokers, compared with 27 per cent of men and 25 per cent of women in 2002(Office for National Statistics, 2004). Among young people aged 15 years, the prevalence of weekly smoking is on average 24%. About 8.5 million people still smoke in England today, and over 80,000 deaths a year are due to smoking in England alone. According to the Tobacco control database, years lost from death by smoking range from 12 20 years, and up to 21% of deaths are attributed to smoking. According to Office of National Stat istics (March, 2009) smoking fell to its lowest recorded level in 2007 i.e. 21 per cent of the population aged 16 and over which were 22 percent in 2006, 28 percent in 1998 and 39 percent in 1980. It has been found that smoking is prevalent in the working age groups. Those aged 20 to 24 and 25 to 34 reported the highest prevalence of cigarette smoking (32% and 26% respectively) while those aged 60 and over reported the lowest (12%). Current smokers smoked an average of 13.1 cigarettes a day. Prevalence of smoking amongst people in the routine and manual socio-economic group continues to be greater than amongst those in the managerial and professional group (26% and 15% respectively). Almost two thirds (65%) of current and ex-smokers who had smoked regularly at some point in their lives started smoking before they were 18. Smoking is more prevalent in the ethnic minority groups. There has been huge difference between the ethnic groups in England. Bangladeshi (44percent), White Irish (39 percent), Black Caribbean (35 percent) men were the highest smokers where as Pakistani (25 percent) and Indian (23percent) men were smoking comparable to the general population and Chinese men smoked the least of 17 percent. Similar to men, White Irish and Black Caribbean women had the highest smoking rates (33 per cent and 25 per cent respectively), although only White Irish women had a rate higher than the general population (27 per cent). But unlike men, women in every other minority ethnic group were much less likely to smoke than women in the general population (Health Survey for England, 1999). Smoking prevalence is a key indicator not just for smoking-related diseases but also for health inequalities. Smoking behaviour is strongly related to a persons socio-economic class. Death rates from tobacco are two to three times higher among disadvantaged social groups. Smoking is significant contributor to the gap in health and life expectancy between the richest and the poorest. Smoking exhibits a strong social gradient and is the major cause of health inequalities in the United Kingdom accounting for two thirds of the difference in risk of premature death between social classes. Reducing the prevalence of smoking increases the life expectancy and also reduces the chances of various acute and chronic diseases. Smoking is responsible for various forms of cancers, coronary heart diseases and respiratory diseases like emphysema and bronchitis. It also increases the chances of tuberculosis infection. Reducing the smoking rate has a strong positive impact on local economy. People from lower socio-economic classes are more likely to smoke than those from higher classes. For example, Bangladeshi men were over represented in the lowest socio-economic class (semi-routine or routine occupations), and these men also had the highest rates of smoking. Smoking is prevalent almost equally in both the sex in the high income group but in low income groups or manual working class the number of female smokers is considerably less (Health Survey for England, 1999). Smoking in pregnancy increases infant mortality by approximately 40%, and smoking prevalence is 1.5 times higher in routine and manual pregnant women than the population as a whole. Second hand smoke is responsible for the sudden infant death syndrome and also contributes to asthma or bronchitis in children. People in poorer social groups who smoke, start smoking at an earlier age: of those in managerial and professional households, 31% started smoking before they were 16, compared with 45% of those in rou tine and manual households. The issue of smoking can be approached from all the models of health promotion. From medical model point of view the aim is to identify those at risk from disease. It can be done by screening the individual for the risk assessment e.g. measurement Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV). Behavioural change approach is aimed mainly to encourage individuals to take responsibility for their own health and choose healthier lifestyle. This can be done by individual advice and information about the impact of smoking on their family members .Educational model approach aims to increase the knowledge about healthy lifestyle which can be done by educating about the hazards of smoking and informing them about various methods to quit smoking e.g. Nicotine replacement Therapy (NRT) etc. Social model approach from aspect of health promotion is very important for dealing with smoking. It aims to address the inequalities in health based on class, race, gender, geography. This can be done by development of pu blic health legislation like smoke free workplace, smoke free public places etc (Naidoo and Wills, 2009, p.67-77). Smoking kills one-in-two of all lifelong users. At current rate of mortality and morbidity due to smoking approximately 10 million people will die out of which around 70% people will be from developing countries. World Health Organisation developed a first health treaty known as Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) and adopted in May 2003 to control tobacco supply and consumption. At the World Health Assembly in May 2003 the Member States of the World Health Organization (WHO) including United Kingdom agreed on this public health treaty. The text of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) covers tobacco taxation, smoking prevention and treatment, illicit trade, advertising, sponsorship and promotion, and product regulation. The treaty requires signatory parties to implement comprehensive tobacco control programmes and strategies at the national, regional and local levels. The preamble of treaty mentions the need to protect public health, the unique nature of tobacco products and the harm that companies that produce them cause. The key measures included in the tobacco control strategy for England are reducing exposure to children from second-hand smoke through targeted campaigns highlighting the benefits of smoke-free homes and cars; to strengthen the NHS Stop Smoking Services and providing new routes to quitting for smokers unable to stop abruptly; to increase the investment to drive down tobacco smuggling; to sustain spending on marketing campaigns to encourage smokers to quit; to implement the retail display ban and ban on sale of tobacco from vending machines (Health Act, 2009).The key elements included in text of FCTC and in tobacco control policy of United Kingdom were very similar. These key elements have been discussed together from the international and national aspects. Advertising is considered as the main reason for promotion of smoking. At international level, World Health Organisation tells the signatory countries to move towards a comprehensive ban within five years of the FCTC convention entering into force. It also contains provisions for countries that cannot implement a complete ban by requiring them to restrict tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship within the limits of their laws. It also requires the countries to look at the possibility of a protocol to provide a greater level of detail on cross-border advertising which can include the technical aspects of preventing or blocking advertising in areas such as satellite television and the internet. At national level, tobacco advertising is banned by law throughout the United Kingdom. The Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act 2002 prohibit tobacco advertising on billboards, in print media, by direct mail and through sponsorship. The act has set of four regulations which ban advertisi ng at point of sale, brand sharing, sponsorship, specialist tobacconist. A health warning equivalent to one third of the surface area of the advertisement must be included at counters. Taxation and price rise of the tobacco product is one of the way which helps in reducing the prevalence of smoking among young people by increasing the cost of tobacco products. High tobacco tax, which is  recommended by the World Bank,  is recognised as a good health and economic policy. Increasing taxes on  tobacco encourages people to give up smoking and raises revenue for the government  thus reducing the need for taxes on jobs and investment. At international level, the FCTC guidelines tells that countries should consider public health objectives when implementing tax and price policies on tobacco products. At national level, the British government announced that it planned to increase tobacco tax by at least 5% a year in real terms (White Paper, 1998). This policy was dropped in 2001 and since then annual increase is around inflation rates which comes around 2.5% a year. Tobacco smuggling is an international problem requiring a global response. It has been estimated that about one-third of all internationally traded cigarettes are smuggled (350 billion cigarettes per year), causing billions of pounds of lost government revenue (over  £2 billion in the UK alone).Under the Article 15 of Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (May, 2003) agreed governments were required to monitor and collect data on cross border trade in tobacco products including illicit trade, to enact or strengthen legislation against illicit trade in tobacco, to destroy counterfeit and contraband tobacco, to adopt and implement measures to monitor and control the distribution of tobacco products and to adopt measures to enable the confiscation of proceeds derived from smuggling. The British Government launched a  £200 million initiative to tackle tobacco smuggling which resulted in declining the illicit market share from a peak of 21% in 2000-1 to 15% by 2003-4. In the 2006 Bu dget, the Treasury announced plans to extend the campaign which included a target to reduce the size of the UK illicit tobacco market by 1,200 tonnes by 2007/08. In the 2008 Budget, the Chancellor announced that the recently created Borders Agency would take responsibility for developing a new comprehensive strategy to tackle tobacco smuggling. Labelling of the cigarette and tobacco packet showing health warning alerts the customer about the potential health hazards of the product. According to FCTC guidelines, at least 30 percent of the display area on tobacco product packaging should display clear health warnings. These warnings can be in form of text, pictures or both. Labelling language should not be misleading and should not give false impression that the product is less harmful than others. Similar policy was implemented in United Kingdom by Tobacco Products Regulations (2002). In the UK, picture warnings on cigarette packs were introduced from October 2008. Pictorial warnings on other tobacco products will be required by October 2010. The Tobacco Products Directive also places maximum levels on the amount of tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide permitted in cigarettes and requires tobacco companies to disclose tobacco ingredients to national governments. Financing of the national tobacco control programmes by the governments is a major step towards smoking and health promotion among the people, educating the illiterate people about the hazards of tobacco. According to World Health Organisation Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (2003), signatory countries are required to provide financial support to their national tobacco control programmes. The elements of the treaty reflect WHO and World Bank policies on a comprehensive plan to reduce global tobacco consumption. The text of the treaty requires the countries to promote treatment programmes to help people stop smoking and education to prevent people from starting, to prohibit sales of tobacco products to minors, and to limit public exposure to second-hand smoke. In England, tobacco control activity is led by the Department of Health. The Department has six strands strategy to reduce smoking rates. This strategy is focused on: supporting smokers to quit; reducing exposure to second-hand smoke; running effective communications and education campaigns; reducing tobacco advertising, marketing and promotion; effectively regulating tobacco products; reducing the availability and supply of tobacco products. The outcome of this six strand strategy is that the prevalence of smoking is reducing in general population but the rate is slower in the routine and manual group and smoking is major contributor of health inequality in England. In 2008, Department of Health issued a consultation, a step towards a new national tobacco control strategy. It covers four main areas for controlling smoking. They are: Reducing the smoking rates and health inequalities caused by smoking. Smoking prevalence is an indicator for health inequalities. Government policy is dedicated to tackle health inequality under a Public Service Agreement (PSA) to ensure that the gap in health inequalities in rich and poor should not widen. National Support Teams are made to support the local delivery of the Public Sector Agreement, working with local authorities like primary care trust. Local Strategic Partnerships need to be encouraged to adopt smoking prevalence as one of the targets in their Local Area Agreements. Local Strategic Partnerships should ensure that work is undertaken with their local public health agencies and government office for calculating smoking prevalence in their area and for determining the appropriate targets. Public Health professionals also need to work with their Local Strategic Partnership to help develop Local Area Agreement action plans. Targeting the Routine and Manual helps in targe ting the largest group of smokers responsible for smoking related health inequality (Department of Health, 2009). Protection of children and young people from smoking by reducing the affordability, reducing the availability to the children, reducing the attractiveness of the tobacco products and increasing awareness about harms of tobacco products. There is rise in the price of cigarettes and tobacco products each year by government which makes cigarette less affordable for young people. Government made strict laws for sale of cigarettes by vending machines and also by increasing the minimum age to 18 years for purchase of tobacco product. The advertising of the tobacco products is banned and tobacco products will be removed from display in 2011 from large retailers and completely removed by 2013. The government will continue to give advice on harms of smoking and tobacco through voluntary National Healthy Schools Programme. Motivating and assisting smokers to quit smoking. Smoking cessation has been a key component of the governments tobacco control policy. This includes NHS stop smoking services or primary care or using over the counter medication. The NHS Stop Smoking Services were launched in 1999-2000 in the Health Action Zones (HAZ) which are the areas of high deprivation. The services were rolled out to the rest of England in 2000/01. The Specialist stop smoking services providing behavioural support and pharmacotherapy have been established as standard NHS services throughout the United Kingdom. Most forms of Nicotine Replacement Therapies are also available on general sale. The importance of helping smokers to quit smoking is stressed in priorities guidance to the NHS and health professionals. Targets have been set for smoking cessation treatment and also for prevalence reductions in each Primary Care Trust. Expenditure on smoking cessation services has steadily increased since their creation in 2000, rising from  £21.5 million to  £74 million in 2008-09. The cost per quitter in 2008/09 was  £219. The cost including hospital admissions, GP consultations and prescriptions, the treatment of disease caused by smoking is approximately  £1.7 billion per year. The net ingredient cost of all pharmacological therapies to help people stop smoking was  £61 million in 2007/08. This compares to  £45m in 2006/07. The government encourages people to quit smoking through its mass media campaigns like Get Unhooked campaign. The funding of advertising campaigns in form of banners is supported by the government on large scale. Government funds various researches to give evidence on smoking cessation services, and to monitor and evaluate the above initiatives including options to reduce under-age sales, introduce ID cards for children, tougher penalties for retailers who sell to children, and a new code on the location of cigarette vending machines. Reviewing the tobacco control policy in United Kingdom various policy gaps were identified and recommendations are suggested for the service gaps. Firstly, advertising policy of the tobacco products. Currently advertising at the point of sale is still permitted which is equivalent in size to one A5 sized advertisement and the health warning should be covering the one third area of the display or advertising. According to Health Act (2009) the tobacco products should be removed from the display in shops. But government will implement this law in 2011 for large retailers and 2013 for small retailers. It is recommended that government should implement the law about the advertising immediately so as to reduce the promotion and marketing of tobacco products which discourages the interest of the young age people. Government is encouraging and funding various media campaigns like banner promotions, television and newspaper advertising campaigns to promote smoking cessation services and anti smoking campaigns. Government need to develop local campaigns which should target the ethnic groups by translating the banners in their language. The campaigns should involve the cultural or community leaders, celebrities etc so that the campaigns attract more public. The age limit for buying a tobacco product has increased from 16 years to 18 years so that the cigarette and tobacco products are not easily available to young people. Government should licence all the tobacco retailers so as to improve the enforcement of the minimum age limit. Prohibit the sale of tobacco from vending machines. Ensure all pregnant women are offered support from specialist stop smoking services as part of routine antenatal care. Train midwives to provide appropriate stop smoking advice and referrals to all pregnant smokers. Develop and evaluate new services and incentives to support the efforts of pregnant smokers to quit. Promote smoke free homes and cars through national and local campaigns. Routine and Manual smokers should be approached through an integrated framework model to reduce smoking prevalence. All the Primary Care Trust service providers at the local stop smoking service should be trained and capable to deliver high quality services. The insights of the routine and manual smokers should be shared by health commissioner for development of future agreements. The service provider should try to gather and share tobacco related intelligence e.g. cheap and illicit tobacco. The local authorities should try coordinating and monitoring the local tobacco control alliance. Government has encouraged various initiatives to reduce the prevalence of smoking in England. There has been support from the World Health Organisation and World Bank to promote anti tobacco campaigns. The new strategies and policies are needed to focus on the routine and manual worker groups which will help in reducing the smoking prevalance. The policies should be implemented properly at the local level. England has achieved the targets to reduce the smoking in public. But still there is a need for every individual smoker and non smoker to take an initiative to eradicate the unhealthiest lifestyle from their lives.

Free Admissions Essay - From Farming to Medicine :: Medicine College Admissions Essays

Admissions Essay - From Farming to Medicine    I heard the familiar sound of the back door closing gently. My father was returning from driving his dirty, green John Deere tractor in one of our fields. Although he begins his day at 5:00 a.m. every morning, he usually returns at around 7:00 p.m. I never really questioned his schedule when I was a child, but as I entered high school I wondered how my dad could work so hard every day of the week and still enjoy what he does. He works long hours, becomes filthy from dirt, oil, and mud, and worst of all, can watch all his hard work go to waste if one day of bad weather wipes out our crop. There have been many years when our raisins were rained on, our cherries were hailed on and our apples were literally baked by the sun. The uncertainties of farming are so great and so challenging. It never ceases to amaze me when my father wakes up every morning to start work, that he does so with gusto. The life of a farmer can be laborious and stressful, yet my father continues to do his work with passionate enthusiasm. His dedication and pride mystified me throughout high school. Only after I entered Big U, did I start to understand how he can persevere and face the challenges of farming.    I entered Big U like a small child wandering through a park. Never in my life had I been exposed to anything so grandiose and dominating. Born and raised in a rural town of 3000 people, I wasn't ready for the fast-paced life and crowds of Chicago. I eventually grew into its lifestyle and learned to adapt to my new environment. I found my bio-ethics class, in which we discussed major issues in health care, especially interesting. The physician's dilemma particularly intrigued me: Doing everything to provide the best health care possible, but constrained by limited resources when the funds just are not available.    These frustrating situations place a huge strain on physicians, and yet they persevere and continue to work long hours in hospitals, clinics and HMOs providing the best care they can.* While thoroughly aware of the long hours a physician must work and the challenges he or she faces, I am choosing medicine because of the unique satisfaction it provides - the rewards of helping a sick human being.

Characterization of Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy in Jane Austens Pride and

Characterization of Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice      Ã‚  Ã‚   Elizabeth Bennet, the heroine of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, is an authentic character, allowing readers to identify, sympathize, and grow with her. Unfortunately, Austen does not create a match for Elizabeth who is her equal in terms of characterization. Mr. Darcy, Elizabeth's sometime adversary, beloved, and, finally, husband, is not so carefully crafted as she, for his character is somewhat undefined, made up of only mystery, inconsistency, and conventionality.    Elizabeth is, initially, quick to make judgments and just as quick to hold fast to those preconceptions. In effect, Elizabeth represents both aspects of the novel's title, being both proud and prejudicial. It is not these factors, then, that endear her to readers, but rather the depth of her character in that she develops into a more even-minded person with a rare capacity for self-awareness. For though at one time she has the highest regard for Mr. Wickham and a low opinion of Mr. Darcy, later, though it is her "greatest misfortune" (Austen 61), Elizabeth amends her former thinking by "feeling that she had been blind, partial, prejudiced and absurd" (135). It is evident that she matures into a fully developed woman who can admit, "'Till this moment, I never knew myself'" (135, emphasis mine).    Mr. Darcy is truly an enigma. Though he is apparently handsome, his physical attributes are nondescript; readers may learn more about this powerful figure's person and tastes from the description of Pemberley, his grand estate. If Pemberley is indeed an extension of, or a reflection of, Mr. Darcy, Elizabeth's pondering that "to be mistress of Pemberley might be so... ... "exactly the man, who, in disposition and talents, would most suit her" (Austen 199).    Works Cited Auerbach, Nina. "Waiting Together: Pride and Prejudice." Pride and Prejudice. By Jane Austen. Ed. Donald Gray. New York: Norton and Co., 1993. pp. 336-348. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. 1813. Ed. Donald Gray. New York: Norton and Co., 1993. Harding, D. W. "Regulated Hatred: An Aspect in the Work of Jane Austen." Pride and Prejudice. By Jane Austen. Ed. Donald Gray. New York: Norton and Co., 1993. pp. 291-295. Johnson, Claudia L. "Pride and Prejudice and the Pursuit of Happiness." Pride and Prejudice. By Jane Austen. Ed. Donald Gray. New York: Norton and Co., 1993. pp. 367-376. Mudrick, Marvin."Irony as Discovery in Pride and Prejudice." Pride and Prejudice. By Jane Austen. Ed. Donald Gray. New York: Norton and Co., 1993. pp. 295-303.

Eating Disorders - Womens Magazines and Cinderella Essay -- Argument

Women's Magazines and Cinderella      Ã‚   In the world today much of the literature aimed at the feminine audience keeps us trapped in the role of "Cinderella." We think of ourselves as the poor, helpless, and uncared for woman who needs to be saved. The covers, the advertisements, and most articles in women's magazines reinforce what it means to be an ideal woman in today's society.    Pick up most any feminine magazine in your grocery store today, and it will define for you what it to be feminine in the year 2000. It defines most women as being slim happy wives, with great careers and wonderful children. One example of this journalistic nonsense is the magazine Redbook. The covers read like a map to any woman's (or man's) fairytale life. Headlines like "Burn Fat Faster at 25, 35, 45" (169) and "Perfect Skin: 77 quick tricks"(cover November) encourage us to be the best we can be in his eyes. Another headline tells us why it Rosie O'Donnell may never be slim (cover November). Why should she be? She's perfect, but n... ...f Leslie Jane Seymour, publishers Hearst Communications, Inc.. Redbook advertisement by Virginia Slim volume #192 November 1999, Pg. 12 Virginia Slims advertisement, Editor-in-Chief Leslie Jane Seymour, publishers Hearst Communications, Inc. Sommers, Jeff and Lewiecki-Wilson, Cynthia, From Community to College, Reading and Writing Across Diverse Contexts, authors and published by St. Martin's Press 1996, quote found on pg. 114 in "Listening" an essay by Sey Chassler, published in 1984 in MS. Magazine

Outline and assess the view that the role of education system is to justify and reproduce social inequalities Essay

Outline and assess the view that the role of education system is to justify and reproduce social inequalities (50) The view that the role of educations system is to justify and reproduce social inequalities is one from a Marxist perspective. They believe that capitalism creates inequality and allows those with wealth to keep theirs. Bowles and Gintis argue that there is a very close relationship between education and work. This is called the correspondence principle. Bowles and Gintis argue that in a capitalist society they are known to give children different types of education based on the class than on their actual ability. Meaning that schools will give working class children a different type of education in comparison to middle and upper class children. Consequently allowing the working class to stay where they are on the class system, but they also allow the middle and upper class to stay where they are too. Capitalism reaffirms the idea that the working class are required to be hardworking and obedient therefore not resisting the teachers, as this is what they will be required to do when they enter the workforce. The education system creates a future workforce that have the desired qualities by passing on the hidden curriculum to school children. The hidden curriculum is the things you learn through going to school and the experiences you get there, and not those that you learn in class and through the formal curriculum. The hidden curriculum is there for working class schools to help shape them for the workforce. The hidden curriculum helps create a subservient workforce, meaning that workers will not challenge the system, and have an acceptance of hierarchy. Meaning that when teachers give directions the students will follow them without asking questions, this prepares them for later in life when they are in work. School subjects have very little reference to each other and that there is not much correlation between each subject. Much like the working class children’s future career as their job may be broken down into small, individual tasks. Whereas in more elite and private schools the children are learnt very different skills, and taught a different set of norms and values. Children at these schools are more likely to be taught to be more in command of the situation that they are in. Bowles and Gintis also reject the idea that the education is meritocratic, and providing equal opportunities for everybody. Middle class children will gain high qualifications and receive higher pad jobs because of their ability but also through their large quantities of cultural capital. Whereas working class children may not have the same opportunities to receive cultural capital this creating inequalities within the education system, much like the class system. This is called cultural reproduction. Bourdieu believes that education reproduces the culture and class system. It shows the importance of the upper class culture and therefore reinforces the power those have over the working class. They are allowed to do this by basing the education system off cultural capital, whilst the culture that the working class children are receiving is not on the education system and therefore they lose interest. Bourdieu believes that education has been developed by the bourgeoisie and therefore the working class have never had any real ownership on the education system they are forced to be a part of. However functionalists believe that the education institution is there and built for a reason, that it affects and benefits both the individual and society. Education allows students to learn and create a shared set of norms and values, therefore creating a similar attitude between everyone. Ultimately allowing a whole society to have values of achievement, competition, and equal opportunities created by education. This is confirmed by Durkheim’s, view that the shared norms and values create social solidarity, allowing the whole society to work in harmony. This can create a skilled workforce as everybody knows what is needed from them and is necessary for the future economy. According to functionalist Parson education is part of a meritocracy, being based on a person’s ability. He believes that education is a bridge between the family and society. Parson’s believes that education creates a set of values including competition, equality, and individualism. Within a meritocracy every student is given the same opportunity, and that achievements and rewards are based off an individual’s efforts and abilities, thus creating an achieved status. A functionalist like Parsons could state that this achieved status allows individuals to strive for more and as a result choose to work and have a career. Education allows students to be categorised and shown what skills they are best at. Role allocation, sorts through people according to their ability at different subjects. Davis and Moore stated that the education system was a meritocracy, and that it is based on the individual’s merit and ability, allowing staff to steer them towards the most suitable career for them. This suggests that everybody has an equal opportunity to gain the most important and best paid jobs, as everybody has had the same opportunity. From a functionalist perspective the most important jobs in society are those that require the longest periods in education and that you have spent a long time working your way there. Therefore Davis and Moore could argue that education is the most important factor in growing up as it is what allows people to be steered into a career. Although a functionalist theorist such as Tumin would argue that those in the highest paid jobs are being rewarded for how hard they have worked. This consequently maintains the meritocratic system, as it implies that we will accept inequality if we know that those with the highest wage are doing the most important jobs. Just as we can accept that it is okay for somebody to be on a higher wage as long as they have more talent and drive than what we do. In conclusion it can be argued that the education system is there to justify and reproduce social inequalities that has been created thus allowing students to be no further forward when trying to prosper in a system that does not want them to succeed. However from a functionalist perspective it can be seen that every child has an equal opportunity to succeed and that it creates an opportunity for working class children to move up the class system.

Monopoly essay Essay

Monopoly is â€Å"a firm that can determine the market price of a good. In the extreme case, a monopoly is the only seller of a good or service. † (Miller 103) Characteristics of a Monopoly. Are that there is one single seller in the market with no competition and there are many buyers in the market. The seller controls the prices of the goods or services and is the price maker as well. The consumers do not have perfect information on the goods or services. Advantages of a Monopoly. The Monopolies avoids duplications and hence wastage of resources. Enjoys economics of scale, due to it being the only supplier of the product or service in the market, makes many profits and be used for research and development to maintain their status as a monopoly. They also use price discrimination to benefit the weaker economic section of society. To avoid competition, they can afford to invest in the latest technology and machinery. Disadvantages of a Monopoly. Monopolies have poor levels of service, there is no consumer sovereignty, the consumers are charged high prices for such low quality goods, and lack of competition could lead to low quality goods, as well as out dated goods. What is required for a monopoly to earn profits in the long run? First off, any market type can see super normal profits in the short-run. What is more important is what happens in the long-run. Pure monopolies are not the only monopoly that can make profits. Natural Monopoly or a price discriminating monopoly can make profits as well. The only difference between them is â€Å"why† they are monopolies to begin with. Oligopolies are not monopolies, although they do tend to make above normal profits. Monopolistic competition does not yield these types of profits in the long-run. Economic profit goes to zero here in the long-run because there is a lack of barriers here to prevent competition from entering (as there is with perfect competition). If a firm uses economies of scale then I would be talking about a natural monopoly (or a few firms in oligopoly depending on how large or small the minimum efficient scale is). If the MES were small, economies of scale would not be an entry barrier to competition in order to achieve positive economic profits. If the MES were large, large enough to support one firm only, that would be the definition of a natural monopoly. â€Å"In the long run, a monopolistically competitive firm adjusts plant size, or the quantity of capital, to maximize long-run profit. In addition, the entry and exit of firms into and out of a monopolistically competitive market eliminates economic profit and guarantees that each monopolistically competitive firm earns nothing more or less than a normal profit. † (http://www. amosweb. com/cgi-bin/awb_nav. pl? s=wpd&c=dsp&k=monopolistic+competition, +long run+production+analysis). Works Cited Roger LeRoy Miller. Economics Today, Sixteenth Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Addison-Wesley, 2012, 2011, 2010, 2008, 2006. http://www. amosweb. com/cgi-bin/awb_nav. pl? s=wpd&c=dsp&k=monopolistic+competition,+long-run+production+analysis.

Contexts of disabilities Essay

Section 1 = Legislation and polices that support the human rights and inclusion of individuals with learning disabilities. 1.1 Identify current legislation and polices used by the care sector that are designed to promote the human rights, inclusion, equal life chances and citizenship of individuals with learning disabilities. Legislations and polices is improve the health and wellbeing of people with a learning disability. This legislation and polices balancing their rights with responsibilities. It basically makes it against the law to discriminate against people due to them having a disability. Legislation and polices is deliberate very clear rules which every care sector have to follow which make SEN people life better than before. Employers may still have reasonable medical criteria for employment. The act defines disability as a substantial and long term adverse effect on person’s ability to carry out daily task. One of the main causes of discrimination is the fear and lack of understanding of others because they are different. In order to prevent discrimination it is important to value people and treat them differently in order to meet their different needs. -Human Rights Act 1998 become law in 2000 gives people rights that there were wished-for to prevent discrimination -Mental Capacity Act2005. Human beings have value and should be treated equally based on the fact that they are human fist. Human worth is not based on either capacity or incapacity. Human rights include the right to life, liberty and security and respect for a private and family life is well. England and Wales have had laws against discrimination since the 1960s. The Race Relations Acts of 1965, 1968 and 1976 outlawed race discrimination, the Equal Pay Act 1970 and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 outl awed gender discrimination and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 outlawed disability discrimination. -Care Standard Act 2000 -Disability Discrimination Act 1995-2005 -Equality Act 2010 -National Health service and Community Act 1990 -procedure and policies of any organization -Codes of Practice This is an act of the parliament of the United Kingdom which has now been replaced by the Equality Act 2010. Legislation under the EqA it is unlawful  to discriminate against someone who has a disability. The EqA provides protection against discrimination that happens at work, in the provision of services, public functions and premises, and in education. The EqA also deals with discrimination in associations. It does so by making discrimination unlawful in a number of ways, and by providing legal remedies to individuals who experience discrimination 1.2 Explain how this legislation influences the day to day experiences of individuals with learning disabilities and their families The legislation who promotes people rights gives protection to people with disabilities not to be discriminated against on the grounds of their disabilities. Parents of children with special needs often feel that they are the only ones who can handle their child’s care. This is certainly true to an extent but that doesn’t mean that you can’t get away for a few hours every now and then. By leaving your child with a trusted sitter or family member you are teaching your child to handle change. Your child will develop the resilience and adaptability that every kid deserves to learn, regardless of overall health. Legislation gives SEN people and family Explain how policies influence the day to day experiences of individuals with learning disabilities and their families. Learning disabilities is life time impairment and usual is reducing the ability of the people to live independently. Disable people have the same fundamental rights as any other people. People with learning disabilities should have a support for their needs and this support is given by family and care worker. It is difficult to paint a portrait of what it’s like to manage the day-to-day life of a child with SEN; Getting a job or education, travelling, going for a drink or to the cinema with friends is ordinary activities but for disabled people remain difficult to achie. Our day to day practices and attitude are important in how effective this policies and rights are followed in real life. Is very important to family members and carers who are supporting people with learning disabilities to†¦ but you may feel confused and distressed. But there is help available for people and families from health, education and social services, 2.1- Explain what is meant by ‘Learning disability’ give examples of causes of learning disabilities including before birth, during birth and after birth. Having a learning disability  means that people find it harder to learn certain life skills. The problems experienced vary from person to person. There is no clear and widely accepted definition of â€Å"Learning disability†. It is important to remember that people with learning disabilities are people first. Someone with mild disabilities may be able to live independently with minimal support, whereas someone with severe and profound disabilities may require 24 hour care, and help with performing most daily living skills. The World Health Organisation defines learning disabilities as â€Å"a state of arrested or incomplete development of mind.† This means that somebody with a learning disability will have difficulties understanding, learning and remembering, and these difficulties will have an effect on their ability to interact socially, to communicate with others, to learn new things, and sometimes to undertake physical tasks.[Department of Health 2001] Learning disabilities are caused by something that affects the way the brain develops. This may occur when brain is still developing-before birth (prenatally), during birth, or in early childhood. †¢ There are around 1.5 million people in the UK with learning disabilities. These impairments are present when a baby is born or acquired shortly afterwards. These are some examples. Before birth things can happen to the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) that can cause a learning disability. A child can be born with a learning disability if the mother has an accident or illness while she is pregnant, or if the unborn baby develops certain genes Some examples of birth defects that affect the nervous system include Autism, Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Fragile X syndrome. Autism-Some people with autism are able to live relatively independent lives but others may have accompanying learning disabilities and need a lifetime of specialist support. People with autism may also experience over- or under-sensitivity to sounds, touch, tastes, smells, light or colours. Asperger syndrome is a form of autism. People with Asperger syndrome are often of average or above average intelligence. They have fewer problems with speech but may still have difficulties with understanding and processing language. During birth- A person can be born with a learning disability if he or she  does not get enough oxygen during childbirth, or is born too early. Anoxia is a condition in which the brain of the baby does not receive enough oxygen to allow it to develop properly. Anoxia can cause certain forms of epilepsy, mental deficiency, cerebral palsy, and behaviour disorders. If the amount of brain damage is not too severe, however, it may be possible to compensate for the disorder to some extent. Epilepsy can often be controlled with drugs, for instance, and many children with cerebral palsy can learn to control their affected muscles. After birth- After birth a learning disability can be caused by early childhood illnesses. Some childhood infections can affect the brain, causing learning disability; the most common of these are encephalitis and meningitis. Social and environmental factors, such as poor housing conditions, poor diet and health care, malnutrition, lack of stimulation and all forms of child abuse may lead to learning disability. Severe head injury, for example from a road accident, may result in learning disability 2.2- State the approximate proportion of individuals with a learning disability for whom the cause is â€Å"not known†. 2.3- Describe the possible impact on a family of having a member with a learning disability. Coping with a child’s learning disability is stressful for any paren. How will family members take the news? Some time parents will accept the problem and offer support right away. But some parent avoiding talking about child’s LD because they feeling ashamed or hiding something, embarrassed, or guilty. Being in the family of a child with LD is difficult and challenging in every step of your life. These can be a involving practical and emotional issues. There are medical and educational decisions, financial pressures, and time constraints — all likely to represent additional responsibilities for parents. And all typical emotions naturally concern, frustration, anger, self-recrimination and blame — also contribute to the pressures normally upsetting to the family stability and divisive to a marriage. Also Parents have to balance the demands of all their children, not just those with special needs. eg.. Siblings often feel jealous of all the extra attention a child with LD needs, such as extra help on homework,  tutoring, time spent , and may be they quickly to say anger or make comments that can hurt. 1-Know the difference between the medical and social models of disability. 1.1/1.2Over the past few years there are number of ‘models’ of disability which have been clear. The two most commonly mentioned are the ‘social’ and the ‘medical’ models of disability. Medical Model-Medical model of disability views disability as a ‘problem’ or â€Å"the victim† belongs to the disabled person. Sometime they think is a ‘personal tragedy’. They think it is not a concern anyone other than the individual affected. Medical model belief that disable person should make extra effort to ensure that they can do it by them self and not inconvenience anyone else rather then they self. Medical model is professional dominance and there are well qualified, experience and professional people.This model more focuses on the need of persons physical, sensory or mental functioning, and use a clinical way support an individual’s disabi lity. Medical model focus is on what person cannot do, rather then what they do. Social Model-Social model is more inclusive. They think disability is a social problem and self help groups and systems benefits disable people enormously. Social model think disable people have individual identity and they should receive all rights and responsibility. They think they should make their own choices. They try and make possible for how SEN people can participate in activity on same level with non-disabled people. Social model make some certain adjustment for disabled people so they can enjoy the event and not excluded from. For that some time you have to spend some money and time is well. The principal of the social model is that this should be respected every people whether they disable or not. 1.3-Outline how each of the models has developed and evolved over time. Living with disability that is one of the difficulties we can’t even imagine what they going through? People judge differently, Disabled person was also hidden away from the society by family members. There was institution run by government and DR would recommended to parents placed the child and forget about their by family. they often forgotten about theme. E.g.. Is there children are safe? Is their needs are meet? How and what condition they are  live? In this institution there were many that traded poorly, abused, neglected and murdered either by family members or at the hands of institution workers. Sometime there were not enough people to take care of them and so they tied baby to their beds even abused physically is well. A lot of them were died at young ages due to severe neglects and abused. People commonly used â€Å"Moron, stupid, idiot, freaks† labels for special needs person.. Most of these pleases are finally closed down in 80’s, 90’s. Now we use group homes and residential treatment programs for today’s society. Family also takes care of their disabled children and adults children and grandparents. We have more understanding and empathy now and authorities are more answerable is well. Also people more educated and get more knowledge about disabled people. This changed people view. Not only society but medical model was very limited for disable person. People have not up to date qualification to help disable people. There was very pity and negative attitude in hospital is well. In hospital Dr and nurse avoid to treat the disabled person. There have no feeling for them and seeing as They feel the society does not accept them; therefore they have low self-esteem and la ck confidence in themselves. This causes them to back down when they face problems. Children and young people with disabilities face discrimination, this means they are sectioned out, compared to the normal people of the society and they have fewer choices. For example; some children/young People are physically disabled which enable them to do such activities and they do not always receive the support they need, due to lack of medical help. Children with disabilities have fewer opportunities compared to other children in society because they cannot always do the things other children can do. Disabled people are still struggling for the right to use public transport, have access to building, go to school or college with their friends and siblings or to get a job this has a negative impact on the disabled children because they lose confidence and they are unable to do the activity the other child is able to do. Lack of confidence will also affect the child in the future. Time is change now because Disability Discrimination Activity (1995) has helped but people with disabilities still often feel that the dominant culture sees then as different from everyone else. Some parts of society  shows positive attitudes towards disabled children to show that they support them. They try and give an impact that they believe everyone is equal and have the same human rights. Nowadays the government show a positive attitude towards disabled children/ young people and their families by proving help and support legally because of the ‘Disability Act 1995 and 2005’ and ‘Every Child Matters 2003’ These acts give more human rights to disabled children. For example, in schools disabled children are given the right to be educated with normal kids and they are given all the support and encouragement, such as teachers would use sign language to help communicate with the child if needed. Also teachers teach all students sign language so that they are able to communicate with the special need child. This is helpful for the special need child because they feel more comfortable in their environment and equally treated. 1.4- Give examples of where each model of disability may be used in service delivery. Example of medical model: Disable student unable to go to the building because in entrance they have steps. The medical model would recommend and blamed the wheelchair that this is because of the wheelchair, rather than the steps. A teacher who refuses to make a hand-out in a larger font for a visually impaired student. for that reason The student cannot participate in the class discussion; A member of staff who refuses to make available a copy of a PowerPoint presentation before a lecture. This creates a barrier to learning for the dyslexic students in the group who are likely to have a slower processing and writing speed and who will struggle to understand and record the key points; Example of Social model: Disable person wants to go in to the building but is it not possible because in building have a step in entrance. Under the social model there is solution, they put ramp or the stars lift in to the entrance so that wheelchair user is immediately and easy to go in to the building and participate the event. A teenager wants to live independently in their own home but he can’t afford to pay the rent. Under the social model, they find supper {claim benefits} for the teenager so he can pay rent and live in their own home. A child with visual impairment to read the latest novel, so he can join the cultural activates with everyone else. A solution for social model is that they makes full-text audio recordings available when book is fist published so child can involved in activity and not exclude. 2.1 Identify how the principles of each model are reflected in service delivery. The principal of each model are reflected in service delivery by meeting the additional needs of the disabled person. E.g. A child who is deaf needs support from medical model and specialised equipment from social model, A child who is wheelchair bound needs a support worker for the medical model and involvement in all activites for the social model. The medical model of disability impacts on the inclusion by needing the rights equipment. The social model of disability impact on the inclusion by needing a supports worker. The medical model of disability impacts on the rights by being able to do activities that able child can do. The social model of disability impacts on the rights by having the freedom of choices. The medical model self-government having and provide special materials, help and support and the right medication. The social model finds individuals needs by having one to one time every so often and having the correct facilities. 2.2 Explain how each of the models of disability impacts on the: Inclusion: The Early Years Foundation Stage [EYFS] and the National Curriculum give clear guidance’s on an inclusive approach to learning and assessment. The EYFS provides a statement on the duty of settings to meet the needs of all children in relation. We must respect people as they are and not discrimination due to any of team and condition and treat them all same. All children should get the same attention and service. E.g. all children should get the same food menu, and play together regarding of sex, race and disability. Inclusion also involves eliminating discrimination and promoting equality. Throughout its work, the Council is committed to being inclusive – valuing and reflecting the full diversity of the community it serves. It will believe and communicate that: We should focus on individuality Treat children with equal concern, not all the same Avoid stereotyping Provide positive images When we start remove this barriers and make sure that all children and family can be feel include and part of it. Working towards inclusion involved We need to respond in such a way that barriers to participation, learning and achievement are removed, inclusion and equality are promoted and a high quality education for all is developed and sustained. An inclusive approach reflects a move away from a deficit model which focuses on aspects of the learner as the problem, where the learner is viewed as deficient in some way. A deficit model also pays inadequate attention to factors such as social expectations, or aspects of the education system or learning environment that could be changed to enable diverse learners to participate and learn. Also, categorising an individual or a group by a single or a few characteristics may be misleading and doesn’t recognise the whole person. Developing inclusion will involve learners, professionals, partners, parents, carers and the wider community. Rights: Inclusion also involves eliminating discrimination and promoting equality. Diversity of It will believe and communicate that: Everyone have to right to be included Everyone has the right to be treated fairly Everyone has the right equality of access We must respect people as they are and not discrimination due to any of team and condition and treat them all same. All children should get the same attention and service. E.g. all children should get the same food menu, and play together regarding of sex, race and disability. Autonomy: Needs of individuals: 2.3-Explain how own practice promotes the principal of inclusion: Disability Discrimination Act 1995 Protects the rights of all those with disabilities. It also places a duty on schools (and other organisations) to eliminate barriers to ensure that  individuals can gain equal access to services Disability Discrimination Act 2005 Places a duty for schools to produce a Disability Equality Scheme (DES) and an Access Plan. Schools must encourage participation in all aspects of school life and eliminate harassment and unlawful discrimination Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 Makes it unlawful for educational providers to discriminate against pupils with a special educational need or a disability Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000Outlines the duty of organisations to promote good relationships between people from different races. Human Rights Act 1998 Sets out rights of all individuals and allows them to take action against authorities when their rights have been affected Children Act 1989 Sets out the duty of local authorities (including schools) to provide services according to the needs of children and to ensure their safety and welfare Children Act 2004 Sets out the duty to provide effective and accessible services for all children and underpins the five Every Child Matters outcomes Education Act 1996 Sets out the school’s responsibilities towards children with special educational needs. The Act also requires schools to provide additional resources, equipment and / or additional support to meet their needs Equality Act 2010 Sets out the legal responsibilities of public bodies, including schools, to provide equality of opportunity for all citizens. This brings together nine equality laws.